会長就任講演
日本語の方言研究と一般言語学
この論文では,日本語の音声データ,とりわけ語アクセントに関連するデータをもとに,一般言語学が日本語(方言)の研究にどのような新しい知見をもたらすか,逆に日本語方言の実証的,理論的研究が一般言語学や他の言語の研究にどのような洞察を与えるか考察する。具体的な例として「音節量」の現象を取り上げ,この概念を日本語の分析に導入することにより,さまざまな日本語の諸言語が一般化できること,また,そのようにして得られた日本語の分析が一般言語学,音韻理論の研究に大きく寄与できる可能性を秘めていることを指摘する。論文の後半では日本語諸方言のアクセント体系・現象を取り上げ,この言語が「アクセントの宝庫」と言えるほど多様なアクセント体系を有していること,そしてその分析が言語の多様性について重要な示唆を与えることを指摘する。
特集 文献言語学
満洲語の多様な形態素-ngge の文法的位置付け
従来の満洲語の文典も辞書も満洲語の形式-ngge, -ingge, ningge の区別を明確にしていない。これらの形式については名詞と形容詞の別も十分に記述されていない。
本稿では満洲語資料の時代をa)ヌルハチ,ホンタイジの時代(16 世紀末~1643),b)順治年間(1644–1661),c)康煕年間(1662–1722)に分けた。a)は殆どすべて無圏点文字による手書き資料,b)c)は主に有圏点文字による木版本資料である。a)にだけ動詞語幹に-ngge の直接続く例が14 例もあった。a)時代の資料をもとに仮定した派生規則の例外は,当然b)c)と時代が進むにつれ多くなる。派生形態素ni-ngge の単純形態素ningge への変化は顕著な通時変化の例である。
a)b)の満洲語話者は満洲地区で生育し,c)の話者は北京という完全な漢語環境で生育している。康煕帝の時代の満洲語はそれ以前の満洲語と文法的にも顕著に違うことが分った*。
キーワード:満洲語の史的変化,無圏点満洲文字,形式名詞,単一形態素語
中世韓国語の「傍点」をめぐるいくつかの基本的な課題
本稿は,中世韓国語で声の高さを示すために用いられた傍点について,それがなぜ付けられていたのか,なぜ,傍点という形式が用いられたのか,15 世紀末頃から傍点を付けない文献が現れ始め,17 世紀以降は完全に廃止されてしまうのはなぜなのか,また傍点を付けた人々はどのような言語的背景を持っていたのか,という基本的でありながらこれまで論じられてこなかった課題について論じた。また,傍点によって表されるピッチアクセントの変化とその地域差という問題との関わりについてもそのための基礎となる考察を行った*。
キーワード:中世韓国語,ハングル,傍点,アクセント,朝鮮漢字音
契丹小字文献における母音の長さの書き分け
契丹語はモンゴル諸語と親縁関係を有する死滅した言語で,11–12 世紀の契丹小字文献によってその姿を知ることができる。本稿は,契丹小字文献における母音の長さの書き分けについて,同源語の比較やテキストにおける分布特徴の分析,接尾辞の異形態や綴字交替の分析等を通じて以下の点を示す。(1)V, CV のように開音節型の字素の母音は長母音を表記している。(2)VCのように閉音節型の字素の母音は基本的に短母音を表すが,長母音ē +子音を表す一連の字素も存在する(V は母音,C は半母音を含む子音を表す)。また,比較言語学的観点からは,(3)契丹語の長母音には現代モンゴル語の(母音間の子音の脱落による母音縮合の結果生じた)二次的長母音に対応するものに加えて,(4)モンゴル祖語やテュルク祖語にかつて存在した一次的長母音と対応すると考えられるものが存在する可能性についても論じる*。
キーワード:契丹語,契丹小字,長母音表記,二次的長母音,一次的長母音
西夏語の3種の遠称指示代名詞の使い分けについて
西夏語の遠称の指示代名詞(以下,遠称代名詞)は,先行研究において3 種が指摘されているものの,その使い分けについては判然としなかった。文献中,出現頻度の高い順に,A 1tha:, B 2tha:, C 2tha: とすると,A とB は同一音節で声調が異なり,B とC は同一音節で声調も同じである。
本考察では,遠称代名詞の使用例が多い西夏語仏典を資料とし,A ~ C がどのような環境で現れるかを検証した。遠称代名詞に後続する要素に着目し,A に後続するのは名詞,「~と」,「~に随い」,「~により」などを意味する後置詞,B に後続するのは「~の,~を」,「~の上」,「~の間」,「~の所」などを意味する後置詞,のような傾向があることを示した。すなわち,A, B は基本的に相補分布をなし,その使い分けが,それらに後続する要素の語彙的な違いによることを述べた。C についてはA, B と異なる観点から検討し,先行研究に指摘されない前方照応的な機能を提示した*。
キーワード:西夏語,西夏文字,指示代名詞(遠称),(名詞)後置詞,格標識
論文
現代語の形容詞語幹型感動文の構造――「句的体言」の構造と「小節」の構造との対立を中心として――
この論文は,「熱っ!」のように,形容詞語幹が声門閉鎖を伴って発話され,感動の意味が表現上実現する文(形容詞語幹型感動文と呼ぶ)を扱い,「感動の対象」を表す「主語」をとるかとらないかに着目して考察する。その結果として,形容詞語幹型感動文について,①即応性と対他性による分析から,構造上の「主語」をとらないと考えられること,②「これうまっ!」における「これ」のような形式は,話し手が聞き手に注意喚起を呼び掛けるための「感動の対象」の提示部であること,③形容詞語幹型感動文を構成する形容詞の性質の違い(属性形容詞か感情形容詞か)の観点から,属性形容詞によるものと感情形容詞によるものの二種に大別できること,④属性形容詞によるものも感情形容詞によるものも体言化形式を持ち,名詞句として感動の表出に用いられることで同じ感動文として機能すること,という四点を述べる*。
キーワード:形容詞語幹,感動,注意喚起,属性形容詞,感情形容詞
日本語の使役文の文法的な意味――「つかいだて」と「みちびき」――
使役文の文法的な意味については様々な分析がなされているが,広く知られているものとして「強制」と「許可」に分けるものがある。本稿ではこれとは異なる観点から「つかいだて(他者利用)」と「みちびき(他者誘導)」という意味を提案する。この捉え方は「強制:許可」という捉え方を否定するものではないが,原動詞の語彙的な意味(とくにカテゴリカルな意味)との関係がみとめられること,それぞれの使役文を特徴づけるいくつかの文法的な性質があること,この捉え方によって説明が可能となる文法現象がいくつかあること,という特徴がある。そのことを実例によって示し,この捉え方の意義と可能性を明らかにした。そして,「強制:許可」と「つかいだて:みちびき」との関係について,両者はそれぞれ使役事態の《先行局面/原因局面》と《後続局面/結果局面》に注目したものと位置づけ得ることを提案した*。
キーワード: 使役文の意味,使役の原因局面,使役の結果局面,使役主の目的,語彙と文法
Presidential Address
Japanese Dialects and General Linguistics
This paper considers how general linguistics can shed new light on the structure of Japanese, on the one hand, and how empirical and theoretical studies of Japanese dialects can contribute to the development of general linguistics, on the other. It tackles this question by analyzing several phonological phenomena in Japanese that are related to word accent in one way or another. This includes the accent of standard Tokyo Japanese and various processes that conspire to avoid creating superheavy syllables. Various seemingly unrelated phenomena can be generalized by introducing the notion of syllable weight into Japanese phonology; moreover, analyzing Japanese phenomena helps us widen our perspectives about the overall diversity of languages. Along these lines, the second half of this paper discusses accentual analyses of various Japanese dialects. These considerations demonstrate the extent to which studies on Japanese dialects and general linguistics can be related to each other.*
Key words: Japanese dialects, general linguistics, word accent, superheavy syllable, syllable weight
Featured Theme: Linguistic Philology
The Grammatical Status of -ngge Morphemes in Manchu
Early grammars and dictionaries of the Manchu language make no clear distinction between the three forms -ngge, -i-ngge, and ni-ngge, even the distinction between nouns and adjectives were not satisfactorily described.
In this paper the chronological development of the Manchu language is divided into three eras, first, the Nurhaci and Hongtaiji era (the late 16th century–1643), second, the Shunzhi era (1644–1661) and third, the Kangxi era (1662–1722). The data for the first group comes from manuscripts written in Manchu script almost all of which was without dots and circles, the data for the second and third groups are mainly from wood-block printed books in Manchu script with dots and circles.
There were as many as 14 instances of unusual verbs formed with stems directly followed by -ngge in the manuscripts from the first era, a clear indicator that the rules of derivational morphology were not always adhered to during this period. However, the number of nonstandard verb forms was greater in the texts from the third era; the most conspicuous example of which is the change of the derivative ni-ngge into a simplex noun ningge.
The reason for the differences between the morpheme usages can be best explained by the fact that the writers in the first two eras were from the Manchu district and the writers of the third were born and raised in Peking, a completely Chinese-speaking environment. From this textual analysis alone, it is clear that the grammar used during the time of Emperor Kangxi was strikingly different from its antecedents.
Some Fundamental Issues Concerning the Middle Korean Side-dots
When the Korean alphabet was invented in the 15th century, almost every character written in this new script was accompanied by one of the ‘side-dots’ which were used to represent the pitch of the syllable. This paper tries to answer the following fundamental and not yet fully resolved questions concerning side-dots: (1) the reason why side-dots were recorded, (2) why they used side-dots, instead of drawing small circles at the four corners of a character which was a more traditional way of representing tones, (3) why and how texts without sidedots notation increased towards the end of the 16th century, and finally (4) the linguistic background of the writers of Middle Korean texts, i.e., which dialect they spoke. Answering these questions leads to a better understanding of the historical change of the prosodic system of this language.
The Orthographic Distinction of Vowel Length in the Khitan Small Script
The Khitan language is a dead language attested in inscriptions written in the Khitan Small Script from the 11th to the 12th centuries and is genetically related to the Mongolic languages. This paper examines the orthographic distinction of vowel length in the Khitan Small Script. Through comparison of cognates, interpretation of distribution characteristics in the texts and analysis of suffixal allomorphs and spelling alternations, this paper argues that:
(1) Vowels in open syllable graphemes like Vs and CVs are long (V = vowel, C = consonant including semivowel);
(2) Vowels in closed syllable graphemes like VCs are basically short but a series of graphemes represent a long ē plus a consonant.
From a comparative linguistic viewpoint, the following two points are further argued for:
(3) Some long vowels in Khitan correspond to the secondary long vowels in Modern Mongolian (which resulted from vowel contraction due to the loss of intervocalic consonants);
(4) Other long vowels may correspond to the primary long vowels which once existed in Proto-Mongolic and Proto-Turkic.
On the Usages of Three Tangut ‘Distal’ Demonstrative Pronouns
Tangut has three demonstrative pronouns for ‘that’: A) 1tha:, B) 2tha:, and C) 2tha:. A and B are distinguished in Tangut script by different characters and in speech by different tones. B and C are pronounced the same but distinguished by different characters. Thus far, no previous work has presented the criteria speakers use to decide which of the three demonstrative pronouns to use in a certain context.
In this study, the distributions of the demonstrative pronouns are investigated in some Buddhist texts, and the following tendencies are revealed: A is followed by nouns, 2ri:r ‘with,’ 1byu ‘cause,’ 1she: ‘cause,’ 2ngu ‘with, by,’ and so on, whereas B is followed by 1'e: ‘of, to,’ 1chya ‘over,’ 1kha ‘between,’ 2'u ‘in,’ and so on.
In conclusion, A and B basically demonstrate complementary distribution: most instances of A precede nouns (including noun phrases), while the remainder are followed by one of the postpositions meaning ‘accompanying.’ In contrast, the instances of B are followed by one of the postpositions meaning ‘of, to’ or are related to some locative meaning.
Furthermore, it is suggested that C functions as an anaphor when used in certain environments, although there are insufficient examples to confirm this hypothesis.
Articles
Adjective Stem-Type Sentences in Modern Japanese:
The Distinction between Phrasal Nominal Structures and Small Clause Structures
This paper discusses Japanese adjective stem–type sentences: a type of exclamatory sentence formed by an adjective stem and ending in glottal stop pronunciation, such as atsuʔ! “hot!” Focusing on whether such examples take a structural subject as their “theme of exclamation,” it concludes that they do not, based on responsiveness and interpersonality. Noun phrases such as kore in kore, umaʔ! “this, delicious!” were found to constitute a presentation unit for the speaker to attract the listener’s attention. It is found that based on whether adjectives are attributive or emotional, adjective stem–type sentences can be divided similarly, as attributive and emotional. However, it was found that both these types function as exclamatory sentences in the same way: they have a nominalization form and are used to express feelings as a noun phrase.
The Meaning of Japanese Causative Sentences:
〈“tsukaidate” (exploitation)〉 and 〈“michibiki” (guidance)〉
The meaning of causative sentences has been analyzed from various perspectives, a wellknown analysis being the differentiation between “coercion” and “permission”. This paper takes a different viewpoint and proposes the concepts of “tsukaidate” (exploitation) and “michibiki” (guidance). This interpretation does not reject the “coercion” and “permission” interpretation but rather shows the following: a recognition of the relationship with the lexical meaning of the original verb (in particular, the categorical meaning), grammatical features characterizing the respective causative sentences, and grammatical phenomena that can be explained by this interpretation. Examples will be used to illustrate these features and to elucidate the potential significance and implications of this interpretation. Finally, on the relationship between “coercion & permission” and “tsukaidate & michibiki,” it is proposed that the former interpretation focuses on the “preceding phase/causal phase” and the latter on the “succeeding phase/resulting phase” of the respective causative events.